wisdomhoots

Block 1 : Introduction to Research in Distance Education Unit 1: Introduction to Educational Research: Purpose , Nature and Scope Sources of Knowledge 1.3 Purpose of Research 1.3.1 Training and Research 1.3.2 Problem Solving 1.3.3 Search for Truth: Scientific Inquiry and Theory Development 1.4 Nature of Research 1.4.1 Characteristics of Research 1.4.2 Types of Research 1.4.3 Meaning of Educational Research 1.4.4 Scientific Approach in Educational Research 1.5 Scope of Educational Research 1.5.1 Methodological Classification 1.5.2 Area-wise Classification In deductive reasoning, the investigator proceeds from general to specific statements. In inductive reasoning, the argument and strength is derived from the observed phenomena. Both deductive and inductive reasoning have made significant contribution towards developing a systematic approach to establish truth. Deductive reasoning is a thinking process in which one proceeds from general to specific statements, through logical arguments. Inductive reasoning derives its argument and strength from the observed phenomena. Scientific approach is generally described as a process in which investigators move inductively from their observations to hypotheses and then deductively from the hypotheses to the logical implications of the hypotheses. This approach, or ‘research’ as source of information, has been increasingly used to prepare strategies and arrive at definite conclusions. As research systematically describes or measures reality in an objective way, it is a better source of knowledge, than one’s own experience, customs and traditions, deductive or inductive reasoning. The second purpose of research is diagnosing and solving the problems in the system. In this case, the system is distance education. Search for truth is the biggest challenge in research. Research in search of truth is often classified as pure research in the otherwise controversial pure- applied research continuum. The search for truth, from the angle of research, is the ability to  generalize and thus, create knowledge. Such generalizations are derived from occurrences in repeated instances Scientific enquiry starts with facts and then moves towards theorizing. To be useful, facts must be organized, and the primary purpose of the  scientific method is to develop a mechanism of organizing the facts, as they accumulate, and become meaningful from the stand point of their objectives. Through empirical investigations, scientists gather many facts. As these facts accumulate, there is a need for integration, organization, and classification in order to make the isolated findings meaningful. Significant relationship in the data must be identified and explained. In other words, theories must be formulated. Theory may be defined as “a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions and propositions that present a systematic view of a phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of predicting and explaining the phenomena” (Kerlinger, 1973). A hypothesis, when accepted, explains a small number of facts and the relationship between them. Generalization, as the term denotes, is a hypothesis based on broader phenomena. Theory, explains even more facts and their inter-relations. Theories themselves range from the simple to the more sophisticated. Finally there are laws, which have the greatest scope and generality. There are several purposes to be served by a theory in the development of science. We shall briefly consider three of them here. First, theory summarizes and puts in order the existing knowledge in a particular area. It permits deeper understanding of data and translates empirical findings into a more easily retainable and adaptable form. The theory of oxidation for instance, places into focus many of the chemical reactions common to everyday life. Secondly, theory provides a provisional explanation for observed events and relationships. It identifies the variables that are related and the nature of their relationship. A theory of learning, for example, could explain the relationship between the speed and efficiency of learning and such other variables as motivation, reward and practice. Lastly, theory permits the prediction of the occurrence of phenomena and enables the investigator to postulate and, eventually, to discover hitherto unknown phenomena. A theory is built upon collected facts. The investigator then searches, makes intelligent guesses as to how the facts are ordered, adds missing ideas or links, and puts forward a hypothesis; deduces what consequence should follow from the hypothesis and looks for further facts which are consistent or otherwise with the deductions; builds a wider generalization or conceptual framework on more facts; and eventually outlines a theory. Theories are solidly based on evidence. And they are important practical tools which enable us to advance our knowledge still further. Once a theoretical framework has been elaborated we know what facts to look for to confirm or to deny the theory; also, we have a conceptual framework inside with which our evidence can be tested. We may think of six levels of theorizing, which we briefly discuss below. Level 1. Hypothesis formation: This is the level of hypothesis formation. Any hypothesis which is to be used as a basis for research goes beyond the facts on which it is based. The purpose is to establish the existing state of affairs. Nearly all surveys are conducted for this purpose. Thus, students of education may conduct a survey of what the pupils think of a particular aspect of the curriculum; how much time is spent by pupils in watching television, etc. Direct study of aspects is probably the simplest to undertake though this does not mean that it is easy to plan and execute Level 2. Elementism: Examples of theories at this level are primitive forms of classification in terms of some significant set of ideas or idea. In the case of education and distance education, classification of abilities derived from factor analysis, or the classification of teaching acts that may be the result of extensive classroom observation, would come under the level of elementism. Level 3. Descriptive theories and taxonomies: Formulation of descriptive theories and taxonomies occurs at a more complex level than mere classification. An example of theorizing at this level is the taxonomy of human learning provided by Gagne. Gagne classified learning into eight different categories, which vary from the most simple to the most complex. Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive behaviours can also be placed under this level. Level 4. Classification: For development of any kind of useful classificatory system, there is a need for a set of theoretical ideas to underlie the classification. The classification of animals acquired significance only after it was realized that, the species could be fitted into a system in which the evolutionary relationships between animals became the basis for classification. Although the concept of evolution became a basis for systematic classification of living creatures the theory of evolution itself represents theory construction at a higher

Block 1: Educational Systems Management Unit 1: Management Functions and Processes          System Concept –  Sub-systems (Prescribing courses. determining the curricula, setting the standards of achievements for the students, admitting students, collecting fees, maintaining records, recruiting teachers, training teachers, administering teachers for their services, holding examinations, certifying performance, construction and maintenance of building or classrooms or labs or hostels or staff houses etc, buying equipment or furniture or books i.e. inventories, administering the organization and finances),  Boundaries,  Goal (task producing an output) and  Relationships (inter-relationships and interdependence within sub-systems = [flows, structure, procedures, feedback, control])  Management Function: Administration and Management, Leadership and Creativity, Planning and Controlling, Organizing (structure of organization, principles of organizing) , Leading and Motivating Management Processes: Policy Formation, Decision Making, Planning Processes (forecasting, strategic planning, operational planning), Creating Structure (recruitment and training, performance appraisal, delegation, decentralization), Controlling Processes (basics, instruments, methods, management information system).   Unit 2: Management of Educational Systems Understanding ED and Its Organization : Social System, Government, Agencies, Autonomy, Market, Educational Institutions ES Structure : Basic ES, Secondary ES, Higher ES, Technical and Professional ES Quality : Planning and coordination, organisation and control, accountability, issues   Unit 3: Managing Educational Institutions Institutional Management : Social systems theory, mission and goals, governance, educational community  Academic Management : Programmes and Curricula, Student Services, Linkages and Interface Administration Support Systems: Personnel Management, Infrastructure Management, Financial Management, Methods and Procedures Institution Building : Education and Environment, Organizational diagnosis, evaluation and renewal, institutional leadership Unit 4: Managing Processes in Education Philosophical Foundations of Education: Learning to know, do, live together, be and teaching and teacher’s role Management of Teaching and Learning : Student learning, faculty productivity, institutional performance, planning Block 2: Management of Higher Education   Unit 1: Higher Education in India   Uni 2: Higher Education in Developing Countries   Unit 3: Higher Education in Globalized World Higher Education: Changing perspectives in a Globalised World 3.3.1 The Knowledge Economy 3.3.2 The Global Competition 3.3.3 The Global University 3.3.4 Trans-national Education 3.4 The Role of Universities 3.4.1 The Shaping of Global Education 3.4.2 The Global Curriculum 3.4.3 Standardisation 3.4.4 Global Learning 3.4.5 The Ranking of Institutions of Higher Education  3.5 Open and Distance Education 3.5.1 e-learning 3.5.2 The Mass Product 3.5.3 Commercialisation of Education 3.6 Global Cooperation and Competition 3.6.1 Open Educational Resources 3.6.2 Global Competition in Education 3.6.3 Privatisation of Higher Education 3.6.4 Impact of Privatisation on National Policies 3.6.5 Quality Assurance Systems and Accreditation World is becoming a global village facilitating business, commerce, education across the nations. Universities moving out of their own campuses and offering higher education in other countries by opening teaching facilities in those countries and continents – is called as globalisation of education. Globalisation of higher education has a major goal i.e. networking with various institutions across continents providing higher education with diversified global perceptions and thus preparing students as global citizens. Such students will be more suitable for global employability. Whereas globalisation of markets and commerce has a restricted view i.e. opening up markets to facilitate business and earn profits. Futurists expect that education scene would undergo a change with globalisation and the internet. The major changes will be teaching – learning interaction through virtual classrooms; and posed questions like… Who are producers? Who are users? Who define quality? etc. New pedagogy of the electronic media and bundles of information available to students as mass product affects the higher education as well. All printed words are replaced with electronic editions and making students to have access to various sources and retrieve and store as they want. This situation opens up possibilities of continuous and lifelong learning. The scale and potential of the media is massive.   We have mentioned briefly about the shrinking of the world, about universities moving out of their campuses and setting up teaching facilities in other countries and continents. This phenomenon, often called the globalisation of education, is the outcome of several independent, but interrelated developments. Universities are no more reflect the common image of isolated ivory towers, they have extended to the world beyond their national horizon. Initially, scholars travelled far and wide in search of a student audience. Now, countless students are internationally mobile, in search of university degrees and cross-cultural experiences. Yet, globalization is a deeper and more profound phenomenon, implying integration into the world economy and extending far beyond economics, to include culture and politics. These trends cannot be distanced from the recognition — by policy-makers, students, employers and increasingly by higher education institutions themselves — of the increasing impact of globalisation on people’s lives. Coupled with the impact of global terrorism, recognition of the value of diversity, the concerns about climate change, and the need to invest in learning to live sustainably, global issues have never been higher on the agendas of policy-makers and practitioners in education. Certain terms like ‘preparing students to be global citizens’ are becoming part of the vocabulary of higher educational institutions in the UK as also elsewhere in the world. ‘Internationalisation’ could also be said to be about developing cross-cultural capability (Killick, 2006 b). The most appropriate description of globalisation is that it is a process of greater integration within the world economy, through movements of goods and services, capital, technology and (to a lesser extent) labour, which leads increasingly to economic decisions being influenced by global conditions. The outcome of globalisation is the increasing interdependence and interaction among people, organizations, and governments of different nations, driven by international trade, and made possible by innovations in information technology. The process of globalisation has not excluded education, which has had its deep impact on it world-wide. A significant consequence of the knowledge economy is that there is no alternative to creation of wealth except through learning and creation of knowledge. Knowledge gained from experience is just as good as knowledge gained though formal education and training. According to some proponents of the theory of economic growth, a country’s capacity to become a knowledge economy depends on how quickly it can become  learning economy. Learning is not just about using new technologies to access knowledge; it is also about using those technologies to communicate with the rest of the world about innovations and new uses of that knowledge. That brings us to another important feature of the knowledge economy: Life Long Learning. Continuous, lifelong learning is important not just for individuals, but for organisations too. A learning organisation is more likely to be

Block 1: Communication Technologies: Basic Unit 1: Introduction to ICT Briefly explain the process of communication. Means and functions of communications Write a note on problem – based learning (PBL). Discuss framework suggested by A.W. Bates for deciding the use of technology in open learning. Briefly examine the emerging trends, with the help of powerful Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) for engaging in teaching-learning.  Write a note on major steps involved in developing e-learning environment.  What are the four steps involved in planning and organizing audio programs before recording ? List the characteristic of Learning Objects (LO). Explain the concept of m-learning and examine the major strengths and limitations of m – learning. “Internet facilitates real time communication through number of conferencing tools”. Elaborate the statement with the help of various forms of conferencing. Discuss the process involved in script – development phase of interactive multimedia. What are the advantages of computer networks ? Explain the different types of topology. Discuss Instructional Design for e-learning. What is sound ? Discuss the components of audio. Write a note on Analog vs. Digital. Explain the educational uses of Discussion Groups. Write a brief note on Wiki.  What are the advantages of learning objects ? Discuss the strengths and limitations of LMS.  Write a brief note on e-mail. What are the processes to be considered while designing teleconference sessions ? Describe the media and technology used in M-Learning. Discuss the role of Intellectual Property Rights in Distance Learning. Describe the pedagogical design in e-learning. Explain different types of teleconferencing and discuss their advantages and limitations. What is concept mapping ? Discuss the tools used for concept mapping. Explain the process of video production.  What are the advantages of RSS used in education ? How to use blogging in learning ? Explain the characteristics of learning objects. Describe the features of LMS. Write a brief note on mailing list. Discuss the Indian experiments used in satellite based education. Describe assessment and evaluation in technology-enabled learning. Explain various file formats of audio and video components. Express your views on the statement “Pedagogical design as a create process”. Discuss any two pedagogical designs suitable for distance education. Explain the process of teleconferencing session. Write any two advantages of teleconferencing. What are the factors to be considered to evaluate educational websites ? Explain. Write a short note on e-portfolio. Discuss briefly about ‘Video on Web’. Give examples. Explain the main features of instant messengers. Write a short note on virtual laboratories. Discuss how blogging can be used in teaching and learning. Explain ‘Pod Costing’ and its uses in ODL. List out the characteristics of interactive multimedia. Explain with examples. Describe functions of social networking in education with examples. Write the role of Radio in distance education. Explain emerging trends in Radio. Discuss ‘Communication in Distance Education’. List any three major shortcomings of ‘non-print medium’. Explain how technologies can be used in assessment with examples. What are the three levels of evaluation in interactive multimedia ? Explain. Write short note on copyright in the digital world. What is ‘Web Casting’ ? Explain with examples. List out the use of graphics in printed learning materials. Give three uses of simulation in education.  Describe the main features of web conferencing. What is SCORM ? Write any two advantages of it. Describe the process of video production.  What are roles of Wikis in education ?  List out strengths and limitations of Wilds. Describe the development of community radio and low cost radio FM stations for distance education. Explain types of Computer networking with examples. Discuss the process of ‘Change’ and the concept of ‘diffusion of innovation. Explain teleconferencing. What are the processes involved for designing a teleconferencing sessions. Describe Sharable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM).  Distinguish between Learning Management System (LMS) and Learning Content Management System (LCMS). Explain media and technologies in designing e-learning ? Write short note on Scenario – based learning. Describe digital games in educational system. What are the Weaknesses of the television as an educational medium ? Describe the principles of graphic design. What are the advantages for using concept map tools in teaching learning process. Identify different types of digital audio formats and describe the advantages of digital audio in distance education. List the strengths and limitations of various web 2.0 tools and explain the uses of web 2.0 tools for teaching and learning. Explain the concept of network ? List some major advantages of computer networking. Discuss management of intellectual property and copyright within a technology-enabled learning environment. Explain some national and international experiments in the use of Satellites in education. Explain the features of LMS. What are the factors need to be considered to evaluate an educational website ? Describe different types of technologies used in designing m- learning. Distinguish between internet and www.  Describe open source and open content in education system. Write a short note on recording audio using Audacity. List any three blogging services on the web. What are the benefits of blogging for learning ? Define learning objects. Describe critiques on learning objects. Explain the principles of designing educational multimedia and evaluate interactive multimedia resources for learning. Describe the barriers towards effective communication in distance education. Examine the use of webcasting in the open and distance learning system. List out communication tools used for e-learning and explain each tool with examples. Explain learning by designing in the context of distance education.  Discuss advantages and limitations of teleconferencing. Describe the typical characteristics of e-learning solutions.  Differentiate between Video Chatting and Web Conferencing.  What are the reusable learning objects in distance education ?  Explain different types of audio formats which are used for audio packages. Explain the principles of designing educational multimedia and describe the advantages of multimedia. Analyse the factors affecting management of technological changes in Open and Distance Learning (ODL). Describe the principles of graphic design and explain different types of graphic formats. Define interactive multimedia. Evaluate interactive multimedia resources used for distance learning. Describe the use of teleconferencing in distance education. Explain the processes involved in teleconferencing. Discuss instructional design for e-learning. What is simulation ? How is it used in distance education ? Describe the features of learning management system (LMS). Expand and explain SCORM.  Critically examine the cost and technology issues in distance education. Explain a ‘concept mapping’ tool. How is it useful for preparing a concept map ? List the advantages of computer networking. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of m-learning and give examples pertaining to use of m-learning in  teaching and learning. Discuss management of intellectual property and copy rights within a technology-enabled learning environment. Critically analyze the teachers to be considered to evaluate educational websites. Explain. Unit 1: Introduction to ICT

Block 1: Foundations of Learning Unit 1 : Learning and Instructions Explain the differences between ‘learning’ and ‘instruction’. Describe the general characteristics of distance learners. Explain the importance of analysing the needs of learners for designing instructional materials. Explain the concept ‘instruction. Discuss Merrill’s principles of instruction with illustrations. Define the term ‘instruction’. Discuss the four levels of designing instruction. Define the term ‘instructional design and state the purposes of instructional design models in distance education. Explain the concept ‘Instructional Design’. Discuss the purposes of instructional design in open and distance learning and describe the tasks involved in instructional design. Discuss Piaget’s contribution towards the theory of learning. Explain the instructional design model of Smith and Ragan. Can we use the terms ‘Curriculum design’ and ‘Instructional design’ synonymously ? Substantiate. Illustrate Bruner’s theory of instruction. Describe the roles and responsibilities of an instructional designer while designing instructions for distance learners. What is learning? Behavioural Change, Cognitive Development, Constructivism, Basic Conditions, Approaches to learning (deep and surface) Learning is a fundamental process underlying human behaviour and action. It could be about knowledge, skill or attitude. It is not directly observable and hence is inferred from a performance. Learning be defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of reinforced practice (through a process of stimulus and response) or experience.   Learning is about cognitive development it is a change in cognitive structures which involve an acquisition of knowledge, skills, attitudes and value through practice or experience. This cognitive change might not be expressed in overt behaviour.  Learning is about constructing new realities through acquired knowledge, skills, attitude and values gained by practice or unique experience. Learner actively seek construction of its own understanding (new version) of reality through a learning process. It is the construction of this new version of reality that forms the basis of further learning. Constructivism or constructivist learning  is about elaboration of concepts that are operating in reality (in a given context) through questioning, critical analysis, and application of the concept and by reflection in action. Learning constructively needs active processing of information, performing experiential activity, analysing life experiences, solving problems, examining mental framework, exploring belief systems and assessing one’s own learning. Existing mental framework and learning need is the agent in the interpretation and construction of knowledge. Social constructivism focuses on moving the fact that the learner has a role to play in its own learning. It is not just an act of transmission of knowledge or skill or attitude or values. Social interactions are the basis of scaffolding when applied acts as the purpose of facilitation of learning process.  Basic Conditions : Contiguity, Practice, Reinforcement, Feedback, Generalisation and Discrimination.  Approaches: Deep and Surface Perspective of Learning: Learning is a process (social, situated)  Instruction: human activity to help others to learn to accomplish a specific goal of learning. Based on the goal, the content is designed including the events or print. It activates human learning process. Five principles of instructions are (i) Learners engage in solving a problem (real world) (I) existing knowledge acts as a foundation for a new one (iii) new knowledge is demonstrated by the learner (iv) new knowledge is applied (v) new knowledge is integrated into learner’s world.   Learning and Instruction: Learning is modification or changes in behavior, cognition and construct (understanding existing and establishing its own unique interpretation of a new reality) based on the acquired new knowledge, skills, attitudes and values. The change is reinforced through practice and experience. Instruction is a pre-planned activity to facilitate the learning process and includes set of external events (such as gaining attention, informing learning objectives, stimulating for pre-requisites, presenting stimulus material, providing learning guidance, eliciting performance, providing feedback, assessing performance, enhancing retention and transfer) directed forwards leaners to activate and support its internal processes of learning. Events help them achieve the agreed or intended objectives or learning outcomes.     Unit 2: Behavioristics School of Thought Describe the applications of Behaviouristic school of thought in designing instruction for distance learning. What is ‘Behaviourism’ ? Discuss the applications of Behaviourism for designing instruction for distance learners.  support your answer with examples. As Behavior Change – Psychologists – Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson, Skinner. Stimulus – Response w/o Reinforcement (Pavlov – Classical Conditioning & principle (Rein, Seq & TimIin, StiGen, Diff, Ext, SpoRec, Inhi-Ex-In, HigOrdCon, SecRein, AgeCond)- {CS, US, UR, CR} {(US, Meat) ->(UR, Saliva), (CS,Bell) + (US, Meat)-> (UR, Saliva), (CS, Bell) -> (CR, Saliva)} ,  Watson, Guthrie), Stimulus-Response with Reinforcement (Thorndike, Hull, Skinner).  Pavlov, Watson. Guthrie (S-R w/o r) Pavlov’s principles of classical conditioning as implied for designing instructions are : assessment of the entry behaviors of the distance learners before designing instructional materials. statement of learning objectives that decides what to present and how to assess student’s learning, analyze what involved in the learning task of distance learners, develop a sequence of learning tasks that move from the simple to complex, design assessment strategies to measure student’s learning in relation to stated objectives, use guidance, feedback and rewards to reinforce the key points of learning and the process of learning. Watson: Extended Pavlov’s work. Human activities can be explained as learned habits. This work is summarized as S-R (Stimulus-Response Theory). Learning is a process of building conditioned reflexes through the substitution of one stimulus for another. He defined human beings in mechanistic and behavioristic terms. Guthrie’s theory of association by contiguity: Impact of reward, function of punishment, importance of practice Thorndike, Hull, Skinner (S-R w r): Reinforcement, Law of Effect, Law of readiness, low of exercise Educational implications of thorndike’s theory of connectionism – ODL to make sure students are ready to receive the knowledge mentally, examples for experiences of satisfaction through learning (course material organized from simple to complex) else dissatisfaction when failed to learn could lead to creating a blockage in the path of learning, more opportunities to be provided to the students to use and repeat the experience they undergo while studying the materials.    Skinner and Operant Conditioning – Operant, baseline behavior, unconditional stimulus, shaping, continued reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive reinforcement, extrinsic reinforcement Gagne’s Learning Theory: systematic approach to

Block 1: Basic Issues of Open and Distance Education     Unit 1: Understanding Open and Distance Education Definitions of Open and Distance Education 1.3 Features of Open and Distance Education 1.4 The Paradigm Shi? in Distance Education 1.5 Scope of Open and Distance Education 1.6 One System Many Names: Nomenclatures of Open and Distance Learning 1.6.1 Correspondence Education, Home Study and Independent Study 1.6.2 External Studies 1.6.3 Continuing Education 1.6.4 Distance Teaching 1.6.5 Self-instruction 1.6.6 Adult Education 1.6.7 Technology-based or Mediated Education 1.6.8 Learner-centred Education 1.6.9 Open and Distance Learning 1.6.10 Open Access 1.6.11 Flexible Learning 1.6.12 Distributed Learning 1.6.13 Proximate Education 1.6.14 Online Learning 1.6.15 Virtual Learning 1.6.16 Blended Learning 1.7 Types of Open and Distance Education 1.7.1 Single Mode Institution 1.7.2 Dual Mode Institution 1.7.3 Consortium  1.8 Perceived Diff erences between Face-to-Face Education and Open Distance Learning 1.8.1 Vocabulary in Face-to-Face (F2F) and ODL 1.8.2 Conceptual Diff erences Between Face-to-Face and Open and Distance Learning 1.9 Open and Distance Education: The Indian Experience 1.9.1 Generation of Distance Educators in Indian Context 1.9.2 Some Initiatives of Indian Open Universities 1.9.3 Assumed Model of Open and Distance Education In India— Dependency Model 1.9.4 Food for Thought ? “Open learning as a philosophy or a set of beliefs about teaching and learning and distance learning as a method/s or a set of techniques for teaching and learning. ? Open Learning is an arrangement to enable a person to learn at the time, place and pace which satisfi es their circumstances and requirements. The emphasis is on opening up opportunities by overcoming barriers that result from geographical isolation, personal or work commitments or conventional courses structures which have o? en prevented people from gaining access to the training they need.” Let us now elaborate Distance Education characteristics as specifi ed by the Commonwealth of Learning (COL). These are as follows:  ? Separation of teacher and learner in time or place, or in both time and place; ? Institutional accreditation; that is, learning is accredited or certifi ed by some institution or agency. This type of learning is distinct from learning through your own eff ort without the offi cial recognition of a learning institution; ? Use of mixed-media courseware, including print, radio and television broadcasts, video and audio-casse? es, computer-based learning and telecommunications. Courseware tends to be pre-tested and validated before use; ? Two-way communication allows learners and tutors to interact as distinguished from the passive receipt of broadcast signals. Communication can be synchronous or asynchronous;  ? Possibility of face-to-face meetings for tutorials, learner-learner interaction, library study and laboratory or practice sessions; and  ? Use of industrialised processes; that is, in large-scale open and distance learning operations, labour is divided and tasks are assigned to various staff who works together in course development teams. A study of the defi nitions will show you that there are some common broad features of Open and Distance Education, which are as follows: ? No upper age limit ? Qualifi cation ? Openness with regard to place and time of study ? Flexibility in selection of courses ? Credit accumulation and self paced examination system ; Use of Educational Technology and Information Communication Technologies (ICT) ? Multiplier eff ect Multiplier Eff ect: The synergetic eff ect of multiplier is always equated with the inbuilt strength of open and distance education. It has been  understood that the Open University can multiply its sources of learning and its resources. In the early sixties the concept of education was aimed at ‘Each one Teach one’ but over the years, it has been realised that even one person can teach many. The strength of open and distance education lies in its multiplier eff ect. This implies that the ODL system can be used eff ectively for reaching out to large numbers without diluting the content  s well as maintaining cost eff ectiveness. This multiplier eff ect is most visible in teaching-learning facilities for learners of ODL as well as training of trainers. In the spheres of training, it is said ODL has multiplier eff ects ie One trainer can train Eleven trainees. This implies that eleven can train One hundred and twenty one and these 121 trainers will multiply and this process will go on multiplying. This was the main object with which the Spoken English training programme was undertaken by then Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages (CIEFL) now renamed as English and Foreign Language University (EFLU) Hyderabad. This model has been replicated in other institutions. The advantage of ODL is that it allows increased interaction capability naturally resulting in increased learning gains. The use of technology  allows many user groups to share the network. It is also possible to organize specifi c video conferencing sessions for a separately identifi ed group with diff erent needs. All these advantages result in tremendous cost-cu? ing in travel, logistics and in repetition of teaching infrastructure. Another advantage of the multiplier eff ect is that it contributes to the repository of digital learning material/ knowledge and enhances the learning process of the learners of the institution. This approach is a dynamic concept to educate mass/majority of learners. The multiplier eff ect allows the learning resources to be dispersed simultaneously among several geographically dispersed learners in minimal time. Also, the biggest advantage is the repetition of training courses/materials and their updating and dissemination despite of the geographic diversity. Open and distance learning can be summed based upon above features as follows: accessibility is promise, fl exibility is its commitment and educational equity is the overall philosophical basis. 1.8.1 Vocabulary in Face-to-Face (F2F) and ODL Face-to-Face (F2F) Open & Distance Learning (ODL) ? Students ? Learners ? Instruction ? Self-learning/Self Directed Learning ? Text books ? Self-Learning Materials. ? Books ? Blocks ? Teachers ? Academic Counsellors/ Tutors ? College/ University ? Study Centres/Programme Centres ? Subjects ? Courses ? Books ? Study Materials ? Chapters ? Units ? Headings ? Sections/Sub-Sections ? Questions /Answers ? Refl ective Questions ? Small Questions ? Check Your Progress ? Teaching ? Counselling/Tutoring ? Examination ? Evaluation ? Mostly Marks ? Both Marks and Grades ? Mostly Multi Media ? Both Multi/Multiple Media Face-to-Face (F2F) Open & Distance Learning (ODL) Systemic issues ? Teacher teaches ? Institution teaches ? Individual teachers excellence is recognized ? Team excellence is recognized. ? Education is restricted to few. ? Education is for all.  ? Rigid educational system – restrictions of age, qualifi cations and physical presence ? Flexible access to education – no upper age, no prior qualifi cations, accessible practices for teaching and learning ? Community and service oriented education ? Both community, market & technology oriented education ? Costing is rarely done on cost-eff ective and